Allie = omnipotent

ch 15

section 1

1. During his travels, Darwin made numerous observations and collected evidence that led him to propose a revolutionary hypothesis about the way life changes over time.

2. Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals and plants varies noticeably among the different islands of the Galapagos.

3. Evolution is the gradual change in an individual ovr a given amount of time, usually it takes centuries or more in order to acheive this. Evolution is concidered a theory because its a well supported testable explanation of phenomena that have occurred in the natural world.

4. A fossil is a preserve remains of ancient organisms.

5. This finding would affect his understanding of life’s diversity because it proves that all of these animals, though plentiful, and striking werenot abl to survive up to this day. So, the range in which animals differ is far less due to natural and necessary adaptations.

section 2

1. Hutton and lyell helped scientists recognize that earth is many millions of years old, and the processes that changed earth in the past are the same processes that operate the present.

2. Lamarck proposed that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms aquired or lost certain traits during their lifetime. These traits could then be passed on to their offspring. Over amounts of time, this process led to change in species.

3. Malthus reasoned that if the human population continues to grow unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficientliving space and not enough food for everyone. War, famine, and disease limited the growth of human populations.4. Lamarck’s views on evolution are incorrect to his lack of knowledge in how traits are inherited. He did not know that an organism’s behavior had no effect on its inheritable characteristics.

5. Malthus’s theory that if the human population continued to grow unchecked our world would be overrrun, actually applies more so to the animal and plant populations in our world. Since humans generally give birth to only 1 offspring, or 2 if they’re lucky, the amount of offspring is far less than the average animal and plant. So it is more logical to think that these animal and plant species would be the ones to overrun our world someday, but due to natural causes they cannot, thankfully.

section 3

1. In artificial selection, nature provided the super variation among different organisms, and humans, selected those super variations that they found useful.

2. Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment.

3. Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of years. Evidence for this process could be found in the fossil record, the geographical distribution of living species, homologous structures of living organisms, and similarities in early development.

4. The struggle for existance means that members of each species compete regularly to obtain food, living space, and other necessities of life. This is based on Malsus’s work because he stated that every species picks and chooses to use, or not use the abilities it has. (i.e. birds kept trying to fly, so now they can) One of the possible reaons for doing this was because of the competition for food, living space, and etc…The need for superiority was apparent, and still is.

5. Lamarck’s theory of evolution is different from Darwin’s because he believed that prefered traits were passed onto offspring due to the parents will to achieve the preferred traits (i.e. big muscles) but Darwin thought the preferred trait was passed on because animals with those traits were more fit to survive. Although, they are similar because they both stated that in the end the best traits will override the obsolete traits.

16-1

1. There are two main sources of genetic variation: mutations and the gene shuffling that results from sexual reproduction.

2. The number of phenotypes produced for a given trait depends on how many genes control the trait.

3. A gene pool is the combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population. The gene pool controls the allele frequency because it contains all the genes of the entire population, and these genes control what alleles will be dominant or recessive in the population. So, if it is black fur versus brown fur, a majority would be heterozygus black , then homozygus brown, and the least least common would be homozygus black furred organisms.

4. In a species in which there are many variations and two separate species can be distinguished by counting the number of phenotypes produced for the given trait, and that trait depends on how many genes control the trait.

16-2

1. Natural selection on single-gene trais can lead to changes in allele frequencies and thus to evolution. Phenotypes are affected in three ways: directional selection, stabilazing selection, or disruptive selection. Directional selection occurs when ones at the end of the curve have higher fitness than ones in the middle of at the other end. Stabilizing selection takes place when individuals near the center of a curve have higher fitness than ones at either end.When ones at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle, disruptive selection takes place.

2. In small populations, ones that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than the other ones with out it, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurances of this type can cause an allele to become common in a population.3. The 5 conditions are needed to maintain genetic equilibrium random mating; the population must be very large; and there can be no movement into or out of the population, no muations, and no natural selection.

4. The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that allele frequencyies in a population will remain constant unless one or more factors cause those frequencies to change.

5. Directional selection occurs when ones at the end of the curve have higher fitness than ones in the middle of at the other end. When ones at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle, disruptive selection takes place. So, they are basically just the opposite of eachother.

16-3

1. As new species eveolve, populations become reproductively isolated from eachother.

2. Speciation in the Galapagos finches occurred by founding of a new population, geographic isolation, changes in the new population’s gene pool, and reproductive isolation, and ecological competition.

3. Behavioral isolation can play a role in the evolution of a species because it is when two populations are capable of interbreeding but have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior. For example the eastern and western meadowlarks are similar birds whose habitats overlap in the center of the US, but since the songs each species uses to attract a mate doesn’t work on the other species, they are not attracted to eachother.

4. These two frogs are isolated by temporal isolation. Because of this isolation the two species will reproduce at different times.

15-1

-What was Charles Darwin’s contribution to science?

During his travels, Darwin made numerous observations and collected evidence that led him to propose a revolutionary hypothesis about the way life changes over time.

- What did Darwin observe among organisms of the Galapagos Islands?

Darwin observed that the characteristics of many animals and plants varies noticeably among the different islands of the Galapagos

15-2

-How did hutton and Lyell describe geological change?

hutton and lyell helped fabulous scientists recognize that earth is many millions of fabulous years old, and the processes that changed earth in the fabulous past are the same fabulous processes that operate the fabulous present.

-According to Lamarck, how did species evolve?

Lamarck proposed that by fabulous selective use or favulous disuse of fabulous organs, organisms aquired or lost certain fabulous traits during their fabulous lifetime. These fabulous traits could then be passed on to their fabulous offspring. Over fabulous amounts of time, this process led to change in fabulous species.

- What was Mathus’s theory of population growth?

Malthus reasoned that if the fabulous human population continues to grow fabulously unchecked, sooner or later there would be insufficientliving space and not enough fabulous food for everyone. War, famine, and disease limited the growth of human populations.

15-3

-How is natural variation used in artificial selection?

In artificial selection, nature provided the super variation among different organisms, and humans, selected those super variations that they found useful.

- How is naturalselection related to a species’ fitness?

Over time, natural selection results in changes in the inherited characteristics of a population. These changes increase a species’ fitness in its environment.

-What evidence of evolution did Darwin present?

Darwin argued that living things have been evolving on Earth for millions of years. Evidence for this process could be found in the fossil record, the geographical distribution of living species, homologous structures of living organisms, and similarities in early development.

16-1

What are the main sources of inheritable variation in a population?

There are two main sources of genetic variation: mutations and the gene shuffling that results from sexual reproduction.

-What determines the numbers of phenotypes for a given trait?

Tbhe number of phenotypes produced for a given trait depends on how many genes control the trait.

15-2

-How does natural selection affect single-gene and polygenic traits?

Natural selection on single-gene trais can lead to changes in allele frequencies and thus to evolution. Phenotypes are affected in three ways: directional selection, stabilazing selection, or disruptive selection.

Directional selection occurs when ones at the end of the curve have higher fitness than ones in the middle of at the other end. Stabilizing selection takes place when individuals near the center of a curve have higher fitness than ones at either end.

Wnhen ones at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle, disruptive selection takes place.

-What is genetic drift?

In small populations, ones that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than the other ones with out it, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurances of this type can cause an allele to become common in a population.

-What 5 conditions are needed to maintain genetic equilibrium?

They are : random mating; the population must be very large; and there can be no movement into or out of the population, no muations, and no natural selection.

16-3

-What factors are involved in the formation of new species?

As new species eveolve, populations become reproductively isolated from eachother.

-Describe the process of speciation in the Galapagos finches.

Speciation in the Galapagos finches occurred by founding of a new population, geographic isolation, changes in the new population’s gene pool, and reproductive isolation, and ecological competition.

chapter 15 vocabulary

section 1

1. evolution – change over time

2. theory – well supported testable explanation of phenomena that have occurred in the natural world

3. fossil – preserved remains of ancient organisms

section 2

none

section 3

1. natural variation – differences among individuals of a species, found in all species

2. artificial selection – the technique of picking the best, brightest, and abopve all, most profitable of a certain species

3. struggle for existence – the competition of each species to obtain food, living space, and other necessities

4. fitness – ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment

5. adaptation – any inherited characteristic that increases an organsim’s chance of survival

6. survival of the fittest – individuals that are better suited to survive in their environment will continue to thrive and reproduce more effectively

7. descent with modification – the tendancy of a living species that decended, with changes, from other species over time.

8. common descent – logically concluded theory that we could find common ancestors for all living things

9. homologous structure – have different mature forms in different organisms but develop from the same embryonic tissues

10. vestigial organ – resemble miniature legs, tails, or other structures

chapter 16

section 1

1. gene pool – the combined genetic information of all the members of a particular population

2. relative frequency – number of times that an allele occurs in a gene pool compared with the number of times other alleles occur

3. single-gene trait – trait controlled by a single trait

4. polygenic trait – trait controlled by 2 or more genes

secntion 2

1. directional selection – when individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end

2. stablilizing selection – when individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end of the curve

3. disruptive slection – when individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

4. genetic drift – random change of in allele frequency

5. founder effect – when an allele frequencies change as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

6. Hardy-Weinberg principle – states that allele frequencies in a population will remain constant unless one or more factors cause those frequencies to change

7. genetic equilibrium – situation in which allele frequencies remain constant

section 3

1. speciation – formation of new species

2. reproductive isolation – when the members of two populations cannot interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

3. behavioral isolation – when two populations are capable of interbreeding but have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior

4. geographic isolation – two populatio ns are separated by geographic barriers such as rivers, mountains, or bodies of water

5. temporal isolation – two or more species reproduce at different times

cornell notes i emailed to you  

section assessment

13-1

1. One example of selective breeding is specifically selecting a pure breed poodle to mate with another pure breed poodle.

2. A breeder can increase the genetic variation in a population by inducing mutations, which are the ultimate source of genetic variability.

3. Breeders can increase mutation by using radiation and chemicals.

4. Polyploidy is having extra chromosomes in your cells.

5. Plants could altered to be more rististant to rotting. This way countries can send fresh crops to foreign countries.

13-2

1. Different techniques are used to attract DNA from cells, to cut DNA into smaller pieces, to identify the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule, and to make unlimited copies of DNA.

2. Knowing the sequence of an organism’s DNA allows researchers to study specific genes, to compare then\m with the genes of other organisms, and to try to discover the functions of different genes and gene combinations.

3. A mixture of DNA fragments is placed at one end of a porous gel and an electric voltage is applied to the gel.

4. The polymerase chain reaction allows biologists to make copies of a particular gene. In the polymerase chain reaction a DNA fragment is heated to separate the strands then, a complementary strand is added, and this is repeated as many times as needed to make the amount of copies needed.

13-3

1. Transformation is when a cell takes in DNA from outside the cell.

2. If transformation is successful, the recombinant KNA is integrated into one of the chromosomes of the cell.

3. A genetic marker makesis used to distinguish bacteria that carry the plasmid from those that don’t.

4. Two features that make plasmids useful for transforming cells are that it makes the plasmid useful is the DNA sequence that serves as a bacterial orgin of replication, and it contains a genetic marker.

5. The difference between the process of transformation of a prokaryotic cell and the one within a eukaryotic cell is that it would take place in the nucleolus of a eucharistic cell and it can anywhere in the body of a prokaryotic cell.

13-4

1.Transgenic bacteria: can be formed with the genes for human proteins to produce these important compounds cheaply and in great amounts. Transgenic animals create animals with the attributes needed in order tomake a profit. Tran genetic plants creates plants with better chances of growing to acheive a substansian agriculteral profit.

2. A transgenic organism is contains genes from other organisms.

3. To create Dolly the nucleus of an egg cell is removed, then, the cell is fused with a cell taken from another adult. The fused cell begins to divide and the embryo is then placed in the reproductive system of a foster mother, and develops normally.

4. I would be concerned about eating genetically modified food because it could contain a chemical that could possibly be a ,how do you say, toxin to my body!

Chapter 13 vocabulary

1. Selective breeding- allowing only those animals with desired characteristics to produce the next generation

2. Hybridization- crossing dissimilar individuals to bring together the best of both organisms

3. Inbreeding- the continued breeding of individuals with similar characteristics

4. Polyploid- cells that have double or triple the normal number of chromosomes

5. Genetic engineering- making changes in the DNA code of a living organism

6. Restriction enzyme- cuts DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides

7. Gel electrophoresis-a mixture of DNA fragments is placed at one end of a porous gel, and an electric voltage is applied to the gel

8. Recombinant DNA- when the gene from one organism attaches to the DNA of another organism

9. Polymerase chain reaction – technique that allows molecular biologists to make many copies of a particular gene

10. Plasmid- a small circular DNA molecule

11. Genetic marker- a gene that makes it possible to distinguish bacteria that carry the plasmid from those that don’t

12. Transgenic- they contain genes from other organisms

13. Clone- a member of a population of genetically identical cells produced from a single cell

i emailed these to you…

Section 1

1. Griffith showed that an injected bacteria strain that is harmless cannot harm an organism. Also, bacteria cannot withstand extremely high temperatures. Although, when you mix a heat killed bacteria with a harmless bacteria, or a rough colony, then the bacterias will trigger eachother into a deadly, living bacteria.

Avery and other cientists discovered that DNA is the nucleis acid that stores and transmits the genetic information from one generation of an organism to the next. And Hershey and Chase concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein.

2. Watson and Cricks model of DNA was a double helix, in which 2 strands were wound around each other.

3. There are 4 types of nitrogenous bases in DNA. Adenine and gaunine are known as purines, and the other two, cytosine and thymine are pyrimidines. Purines have 2 rings in heir structures, by pyrimidines have one ring.

4. Watson and Crick’s model shows that every DNA strand has base pairs, which explains Chargaff’s rules. So, [A] = [T] and [G] = [C]. In other words, for every adenine in a double-stranded DNA molecule, there had to be exactly on thymine molecule, and for each cytosince molecule, there had to be one quanine molecule.

5. Hershey and Chase grew viruses in cultures that contained radioactive phosphorus and radioactive sulfer so they could tell whether genes were made of protein, which contains no sulfer, or protein which contains almost no phosphorus.

section 2

1. In DNA replication, the DNA molecule separates into two strands, then produces 2 new complementary strands following the rules of base pairing. Each strand of the double helix of DNA serces as a template, or model, for the new strand.

2. Eukaryotic chromosomes contain both DNA and protein, tightly packed together to form chromatin.Chromatin consists of DNA histones and together they create a nucleosome. These structures pack toether to form a thick fiber, which is shortened by a system of loops and coils.

3. To fit long DNA molecules in a eukaryoticcell the DNA must be folded into a space only one one-thousandth of its length. Eukaryotic chromosomes contain both DNA and protein, tightly packed together to form chromatin.Chromatin consists of DNA histones and together they create a nucleosome. These structures pack toether to form a thick fiber, which is shortened by a system of loops and coils.

4. DNA is coiled around histones and together with the chromosome the DNA creates a beadlike structure- a nucleosome. These pack with one another to form a thick fiber, which is shortened by a system of loops and coils.

5. DNA polymerase is the principal enzyme involved in DNA replication because it polymerizaes individual nucleotides to produce DNA.

6. The main difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes in how they hold their DNA is the space. In prokaryotes they have much more space, but in eukayotes they have probably less than an inch.

section 3

1. The three main types of RNA are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA.

2. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and separates the DNA strands. RNA polymerase then uses one strand of DNA as a template from which nucleotides are assembled into a strand of RNA.

3. During translation, the cell uses info froma messenger RNA to produce proteins.

4. The main differences between RNA and DNA are that the sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose, RNA is generally single-stranded, and it contains uracil in place of thymine.

5. ACCGUCACG

section 4

1. A gene mutations result from changfes in a single gene. Chromosomal mutations involve changes in whole chromosomes.

2. Point mutations are mutations that affect one nucleotide in the DNA sequence.

3.

DNA: TAC GCA TGG AAT

mRNA: AUG CGU ACC UUA

Amino

Acid: Met-Arg-Thr-Leu

Substitution

DNA: TAC GTA TGG AAT

mRNA: AUG CAU ACC UUA
Amino

acid: Met-His-Thr-Leu

AND

DNA: TAC GCA TGG AAT

mRNA: AUG CGU ACC UUA

Amino

Acids: Met-Arg-Thr-Leu

Insertion

DNA: TAT CGC ATG GAA T

mRNA: AUA GCG UAC CUU A

Amino

acids: Ile- Ala-Tyr-Leu

4. The 4 types of chromosomal mustations are deletion involves the losss of alll or part of a chromosome, duplication, inwhich a seg ment of chromosome is repeated, inversion, when a chromosomes is oriented in the reverse of its usual direction, and translocation occurs when part of one chromosome breaks off a nd attaches to another, nonhomogous, chromosome.

5. A biologist can determine whether a mutation is present or not by taking a sample of the person’s blood and running a DNA test on it using instuments such as a light microscope, and depending on what section of the DNA is missing then you can tell what the mutation is.

section 5

1. The lac genes are turned off by repressors and turned on by the presence of lactose.

2. Most eukaryotic genes are contollled individually and have regulatory sequence that are much more complez than those of the lac operon.

3. A promoter is a binding site for RNA polymerase.

4. Regulating the expression is especially improtant in shaping the way a complex organism develops from a single fertizled cell.

5. In fruit flies a series of hox genes along a chromosome determines the basic structure of the flyu’s body. Mice have very similar genes on 4 different chromosomes. Although the fruit fly’s are located side by side in a single cluster, arranged in the exact order expressed int he body. Mice have a multi-row cluster of genes.

June 17, 2007

(first person)

Today was the day.My water has broken. I am writing this as i am being carried into my Volvo. We are driving to the hospital where I will be given birth to Victoria-Anne Hatchwatchapooda-ville Mclarnen. Yes, Matt picked the middle name. Oh my, we are now at the hospital! I must go so I may continue with my child bearing. (many hours later!)

After a long sadated struggle, Victoria was brought into the world. Although, it appears as though her existance is threatened. The doctor spoke with concern, but still hopefully: “There’s something wrong. Your daughter’s Apgar scores are 5 points lower than what they should be, which is 10. This isn’t completely abnormal in newborns but she will have to be taken care of more carefully so she will be able to function normally.” While the doctor was ratteling off all these details all I could think to myself was: “Perhaps this is a message from God.” I knew, and still know that the Catholic church disapproves of thrid party reproduction, but I still did it. It was wrong, I know but if you were in my shoes, what would you have done?

(third person)

Hold up fool! Ya man Mr. T here! I doubt that any of y’all know exactly what Apgar scores are, fool. It was all started by an anesthesiologist, in 1952, named Virginia Apgar. Most people just know it as an acronym referred to as: Activity, Pulse, Grimace, Appearance, and Respiration. And that is just what it is, fool. The scores range from 0-10. The tests are as follows:-heart rate (pulse)

-breathing (rate and effort)

-activity and muscle tone

-grimace response (medically known as “reflex irritability”)

-appearance (skin coloration)

The highest score for each is 2 and the lowest is 0.

(see below)

As the doctor said, even if the Apgar scores are low in the beginning the infant generally recovers. A baby who scores a 7 or above on the test at 1 minute after birth is generally healthy. However, a lower score doesn’t necessarily mean that your baby is unhealthy or abnormal. For example, a score between 4 and 6 at 1 minute indicates that your baby simply needs some special immediate care, such as suctioning of the airways or oxygen to help him or her breathe, after which your baby may improve.

At 5 minutes after birth, the Apgar score is recalculated, and if your baby’s score hasn’t improved to 7 or greater, the doctors and nurses may continue any necessary medical care and will closely monitor your baby. Some babies are born with heart or lung conditions or other problems that require extra medical care; others just take a little more time than usual to adjust to life outside the womb. Most newborns with initial Apgar scores of less than 7 will eventually do just fine, I pity the fool who thinks other wise.

Always remember though:

The Apgar scoring was not designed to predict a baby’s long-term health, behavior, intellectual status, or outcome. Few babies score a perfect 10, and perfectly healthy babies sometimes have a lower-than-usual score, especially in the first few minutes after birth. Keep in mind that a slightly low Apgar score (especially at 1 minute) is normal for some newborns, especially those born after a high-risk pregnancy, cesarean section, or a complicated labor and delivery. Lower Apgar scores are also seen in healthy premature babies who usually have less muscle tone than full-term newborns and who, in many cases, will require extra monitoring and breathing assistance because of their immature lungs.

http://www.mybirthcare.com/ns_timeline_frames.htm

 These show real life ^^^

http://babies.sutterhealth.org/babygrowth/fetaldev/bg_fetaldev-2.html

This is illistrated, but it shows the womb and mom^^

http://www.videocodezone.com/videos/a/aqualung/brighter_than_sunshine-4.html

Just to set the “mood.” This is now the current song of my life.

and if this doesn’t work…it’s the song by Aqualung: Brighter then the sunshine.

Power Cry!!! :

‘FOSHO It’s BIO!

why do white people like me try to use that word? OH WELL! Let’s go!

‘Fosho..

First Person

September 23, 2006

Matthew came back from Iraq last week! Actually, he was never really in Iraq. There was a fluke! You see, the army drafted Matthew Mcarnen NOT McLarnen (spl….) I am awe strucken, and haven’t stopped smiling since. Crazy huh? But regaurdless of that I talked to Matt how I was not pregnant. I actually found this out through a blood test I had received the day before Matt came home. And although I cannot stop smiling, I am not entirely happy. Six months ago I had been diagnosed with Pelvic Inflammitory disease. It damaged my fillopian tubes, but NOT my uterus, because of this my doctor told me that I could try and become pregnant, and maybe be successful. Although this doesn’t seem to be the case…so I reserved an egg that could be implanted in me as soon as FID was diagnosed, just in case. The egg will be implanted into me today at 3 I will have a baby (BY TONIGHT.) Luckily, although, I do not have an STD that caused my PID. Whew!

Third Person

I pity the fool with FID! FID is caused by bacteria. It can move upward, from a woman’s vagina or cervix opening to the uterus, into her fallopian tubes, ovaries and uterus, causing this infection. Many types of bacteria can cause PID. But, bacteria found in gonorrhea and chlamydia two common sexually transmitted diseases are the most frequent causes of PID. After being infected, it can take from a few days to a few months to develop PID.

Sometimes a woman can develop PID without having an STD. No one is sure why this happens, but normal bacteria found in the vagina and on the cervix can cause PID. (Like in this shawty’s case.)

How would I know if I had PID? What are the symptoms, or signs?

All of these hormones are corsing through a pregnant woman’s body!!!

Source: http://www.ninemonths.com.au/content_page_1.asp?page_id=7&main_menu_id=3&l1_id=1&l2_id=3

TIMELINE!!!

http://www.ehd.org/science_main.php?level=a

(in the middle.)